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Report 8
By Trey L. Hill, Jay W. Brandenberger, and George S. Howard
Research on the potential impacts of community-based and service-learning has increased over the last decade, but many studies are limited in duration and scope. Most students speak positively about service-learning during and upon completion of their involvement: they claim to have grown personally and be motivated for future service and civic engagement. And such benefits are substantiated by short-term research. Blyth, Saito, and Berkas (1997) summarize pre-post studies documenting the following immediate outcomes of service-learning: increased intellectual growth, enhanced problem solving abilities, increased self-confidence, gains in self-esteem and feelings of social efficacy, greater social responsibility, more principled moral reasoning, and reduced feelings of isolation and alienation. Do such socially desirable results last or fade? Is there evidence that students’ lives are different years later? The longevity of the University of Notre Dame’s Summer Service Project (SSP), begun in the 1970’s, provides an opportunity for follow-up analysis to address such questions.
This report summarizes the findings of a longitudinal study that examined
a random sample of undergraduates that participated in the 1987 Summer
Service Project and a matched control group approximately ten years after
graduation. Findings are discussed in relation to developmental theory
and higher education.
Service-learning and other forms of engaged learning reflect Dewey’s
insight (1938) that learning is a process of constantly making meaning of the
world and one’s experiences within social contexts. According to Dewey,
a dynamic tension exists between the impulse to act on one’s ideas and
the need to postpone that very action in order to make observations and form
judgments that may enhance one’s actions. Personal development occurs
as initial desires and instincts are transformed into informed, purposeful
action through learning experiences. Service-learning provides opportunities
for such development consistent with Piaget’s emphasis on active, constructive
exploration as a means to growth. Engaged learning has the potential to prompt
moral reflection in social context as individuals construct their own understandings
of self and world (see Brandenberger, 1998).
Building on the work of early developmentalists, current theorists emphasize
a holistic approach. Consistent with the focus of this study, Kolb (1984) stresses
the interaction among the academic, personal, interpersonal and related developmental
domains. And Serow (1997) emphasizes a holistic approach to service-learning
assessment that includes examination of value development, attitudes toward
community, and relationships.
After a review of such literature, we outlined four variables of focus for
longitudinal follow-up: 1) Commitment to a life of service: a demonstrated
commitment to serving those who are disadvantaged); 2) Relationship to society:
a sense of ones’ role in the world and connection to others, including
family, friends, community, and beyond; 3) Spirituality: a sense of connection
to God, however conceived, or a spiritual force that is integrated into one’s
personal life; and 4) Growth: an orientation to actively learn and participate
in activities that enhance personal development. A Commitment to a life of
service represents the most direct measure of potential SSP impact. Service
actions should continue to be integrated into an individual’s life after
their service-learning experience. The remaining variables represent other
hypothesized (and more holistic) impacts of service-learning. Various theories
emphasize the potential of service engagements to enhance understandings of
social dynamics and relationships, even to reduce feelings of isolation or
alienation. The third construct reflects the program’s attempt to integrate
spirituality with active service. Colby and Damon (1992) found a deep sense
of spirituality to be evident in almost all of their sample of adult “moral
exemplars”. Our focus on personal growth represents the emphasis within
experiential learning theory on the continuous nature of the learning process.
If the service-learning experience is successful, growth through interaction,
reflection, and meaning-making should continue (see Kolb, 1984). For further
definition of the variables used in this study, see Table 1.
The 1987 Summer Service Project at Notre Dame placed 72 undergraduates in service-learning sites across the nation, from Florida to California. The program design met a majority of the criteria for effective service-learning (see Eyler and Giles, 1997). Students participated in orientation sessions and completed relevant readings before, during and after their engagement. Assigned readings included, for example, sections from Fagan’s (1979) Empowerment: Skills for Parish Social Action, and McNeil, Morrison, and Nouwen’s (1983) work: Compassion: A Reflection on the Christian Life.
Students worked for eight weeks in a variety of placements, chosen when possible
according to their interests. Service sites included medical clinics, homeless
shelters, youth centers and the like that offered opportunities for tangible,
challenging involvement. Most participants lived in a city or town new to
them, separate from parents and friends, perhaps heightening the salience
of the service-learning experience. Students were supervised by agency
contact persons and mentored by Notre Dame alumni and alumnae from the
local areas. Students kept journals detailing their experiences and had
numerous opportunities for reflection. Upon return for the fall semester,
students participated in four seminar sessions and completed a paper examining
relevant issues and potential implications for their lives and academic
work. Students earned one credit in Theology (some participated in an optional
additional Theology course for three credits).
The identified service-learning group for the study was selected randomly
from those Notre Dame graduates who completed the 1987 Summer Service Project.
Many of those identified had also participated in other service or service-learning
activities, including opportunities facilitated through the Center for Social
Concerns.
The control group was developed from cohorts selected from a list of potential
subjects matched to one specific treatment subject on the variables of GPA,
year of graduation, and college of study. Many of the individuals in the
control group performed some service activities as undergraduates, but
did not participate in the SSP or any other service-related project of
similar intensity or duration. Each group consisted of 19 subjects, for
a total of 38 participants.
The researchers created an 18-question interview (see sample questions) to
elicit a holistic picture of subjects’ life trajectories, attitudes,
beliefs, service actions and involvement. Interviews were conducted by telephone
and lasted from 20 to 45 minutes. The format was designed to allow the researcher
to obtain necessary information for ratings without biasing the subjects’ narratives.
The interviewer was blind to condition (whether the interviewee was previously
a Summer Service participant) and did not mention the research focus on service-learning.
Upon completion, the taped interviews were transcribed, and references to obvious
service-learning experiences while at Notre Dame were stripped so that raters
would remain blind to subjects’ group membership.
Three graduate students in psychology served as raters of the transcripts.
Practice ratings and discussions to standardize criteria were conducted prior
to review of the research interviews. Likert-type scales (ranging from 1
to 10) were refined for each variable: see Table 1. Each rater reviewed every
transcript and rated individuals on the dimensions outlined.
On all four variables, high correlations among raters were found. Cronbach’s
alpha, a measure consistency across raters, yielded correlations of .88 for
Commitment to service, .81 for Relationship to society, .87 for Spirituality,
and .71 for Growth. Further information about the interviews, ratings, and
methods is available from the authors.
Eleven years later, previous service-learning (SSP) participants scored higher
than those in the comparison group on all four dependent measures, with three
of the differences significant at the .05 alpha level. Results were analyzed
using four one-way ANOVA’s with service-learning as the independent variable
and the averages of raters’ scores as dependent variables.
Table 2 presents relevant means and standard deviations (higher scores reflect
more positive outcomes on each dimension). The only difference that was not
statistically significant was the Spirituality dimension (F = 2.070, p = .159).
Thus, participation in a summer service project at Notre Dame during the summer
of 1987 seems related to participants’ subsequent levels of commitment
to service, relatedness to others, and personal growth orientation as rated
by judges.
Data also were analyzed using paired sample t-tests, consistent with the matched
pairs design of the study. The pattern of results was parallel to the previous
analysis of the four variables. Controlling for GPA, college of study, and
year of graduation did not extensively reduce extraneous variance, suggesting
that such variables did not weigh significantly in the findings.
Gender
Gender is a variable of interest in such research. The service-learning group
consisted of 14 women and 5 men, compared to 6 women and 13 men in the control
group. These ratios are consistent with demographics at Notre Dame in 1987
(where 49 of the 72 SSP participants were female, but a majority of the student
body was male). Could the discrepancy between gender totals in our sample explain
the differences we found over time on the four measures? To explore gender-related
questions, we conducted various analyses. Table 3 presents the means for each
gender within each group for all dependent variables.
For Commitment to service and Relationship to society, service group members
scored higher than controls for each gender considered separately (e.g., men
in the service-learning group vs. men in the control group, etc.). For Growth,
men in the service group scored higher than men in the control group, while
means for the women were nearly identical for both groups. For Spirituality,
a large difference in means was apparent for men, whereas the means for women
trended in the opposite direction from what may be expected. But recall that
treatment effect for Spirituality was not statistically significant. Thus,
the data indicate that for each variable except Spirituality, service-learning
is associated with positive long-term effects for both men and women. Consult
the authors for further analyses of gender-related results, including an examination
of interaction effects.
This study contributes to the literature on service-learning by employing a longitudinal design and a holistic perspective. Salient goals of service-learning include learning through action, personal development, and civic responsibility (Waterman, 1997). This research examined such constructs thorough interviews conducted approximately ten years after graduation using raters unaware of participants earlier service-learning participation.
That service-learning participants showed significantly higher scores on three of the four dimensions examined is noteworthy, and consistent with anecdotal evidence and the claims of service-learning educators. But causal inferences should not be made since the study lacked random assignment to groups. Perhaps those who are attracted to service-learning are different prior to their involvement (see Research Reports 3 and 4), and such differences continue to manifest years later. Yet the presence of a matched control group allowed us to eliminate some alternative explanations; for example, the differences between groups did not seem to be due to differences in academic achievement levels or course of study.
Since fostering a commitment to civic participation is a goal for many service-learning
practitioners, results here regarding the variable of Commitment to service
are important. Findings on this dimension showed consistently significant
differences for both genders separately and overall: the average service-learning
group member falls at the 82nd percentile of the control group distribution
on Commitment to a life service. This outcome is also noteworthy since
commitment was measured here according to participants’ reported life actions and involvements,
not simply their beliefs or intentions.
Regarding Relationship to society, service-learning participants scored higher
than 75% of controls, reporting a greater sense of connectedness and enhanced
involvement in healthy relationships. Perhaps such contributes to their motivation
to serve, or stems from it. With respect to the Growth variable, service-learning
participants scored higher than 79% of the control group, demonstrating a
stronger orientation toward active learning and opportunities for development
(a sense of self-actualization in the context of the needs of others was
scored highly on this measure).
The research conducted did not yield significant differences with respect
to the variable of Spirituality, though means for service-learning participants
were higher than for controls. Perhaps differences on this dimension would
be difficult to discern within the Notre Dame community, where spiritual
and religious practices are common and well-supported. Note that in research
summarized by Eyler and Giles (1999), spiritual growth was a robust and
somewhat unexpected outcome of service-learning in primarily secular contexts.
In our analyses of gender differences, women showed higher scores on each
dimension, but men appeared to gain more from summer service-learning.
Such a finding may support efforts to attract males to service-learning
initiatives where they are often underrepresented. Future research in this
vein would do well to examine gender differences by utilizing pre-test
data and potentially matching controls by gender.
Our research findings are consistent
with similar longitudinal studies, specifically that of McAdam (1988) who surveyed
participants in the 1964 Freedom Summer campaign that enrolled colleges students
in civil rights initiatives. Twenty years later, prior participants showed
significantly higher levels of political and social involvements than cohorts
who had been accepted for Freedom Summer but were unable to participate. Similarly,
Daloz et al. (1996) examined the lives of over 100 individuals nominated for
their sustained dedication to the common good in order to discern what prompts
long-term commitment. Among a variety of factors, the researchers suggested “that the most salient
pattern we found in our study” involved what they labeled constructive
engagement (p. 14). The researchers noted that “at some point in their
formative years”, often during higher education, almost everyone in their
sample had a sustained experience of diversity, of coming to know others that
were significantly different from themselves “by means of which they
could empathetically recognize a shared humanity” (p. 14). We may speculate,
and examine through further research, that such constructive engagement is
a salient developmental mechanism that Summer Service Projects facilitate
for lasting effect.
In summary, service-learning appears to be associated with positive long-term impacts, even when participants are compared to individuals with extensive exposure to positive educational and personal growth opportunities. Service-learning during the undergraduate years appears to be linked, though perhaps not causally, to future service involvement, enhanced relationships, an openness to continued growth, and, to a certain extent, spirituality. Perhaps service-learning fosters a channeling effect, facilitating ongoing awareness that personal growth and a commitment to others are reciprocally beneficial. Future research employing longitudinal designs and controlling for pretest differences is needed to examine such developmental processes in the context of higher education and beyond.
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